2. Historical development: American independence and constitutional republicanism

Historical developments and consequences

On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. George Washington commanded the Continental Army; Benjamin Franklin and John Adams helped secure diplomacy and recognition.

The Articles of Confederation created a weak central government. Delegates meeting in Philadelphia in 1787 proposed a federal constitution with separated branches, and the Bill of Rights followed in 1791.

Independence established representative institutions and protected specified civil liberties, but slavery persisted and women, many propertyless residents and Indigenous peoples lacked equal political rights. Expansion later intensified dispossession.

The new republic survived war with Britain in 1812 and became a model debated abroad. Its constitutional procedures allowed amendments and contested elections, while inclusion required prolonged political struggle.

The Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, following Richard Henry Lee’s resolution. George Washington commanded the Continental Army; Congress and state governments struggled to finance the war.

Actions, conflicts & consequences

Compare who exercised authority, whether opponents could organize independently, how the government handled economic and social demands, and whether neighboring populations were exposed to invasion or coercion. The record above describes this particular case rather than treating every movement with a similar label as identical.