3. Authorities & decisions: The English Commonwealth and military republicanism

Decision-makers, laws and consequences

The Rump Parliament abolished the monarchy in 1649 after Charles I was tried and executed. Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector under the Instrument of Government in 1653; military officers remained decisive in politics.

The 1660 Restoration returned Charles II to the throne. The 1688–1689 settlement and Bill of Rights placed further limits on monarchy while retaining an unequal political franchise.

Institutional consequences

The authorities identified above acted within institutions that determined who could govern, enforce decisions and challenge official power. The resulting changes to political participation, legal status, military control or property administration are part of the historical record of this specific event, rather than evidence that every later government followed the same path.

Legal restrictions, rights & enforcement

Compare who exercised authority, whether opponents could organize independently, how the government handled economic and social demands, and whether neighboring populations were exposed to invasion or coercion. The record above describes this particular case rather than treating every movement with a similar label as identical.