9. The United States constitutional system
Individuals & institutions
Madison, Hamilton, Washington, United States
Events & dates
The Constitution established divided federal powers and regular elections. The Bill of Rights was ratified in 1791. Slavery, disenfranchisement and unequal treatment persisted and were challenged through constitutional amendments and legislation.
Consequences & historical significance
Competitive elections, judicial review and protected speech permit organized opposition, although these institutions can be weakened in practice.