2. Historical development: Civil rights and enforceable equal citizenship

Historical developments and consequences

Thurgood Marshall, Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, Lyndon Johnson

Brown v. Board of Education rejected public-school segregation in 1954. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited major forms of discrimination; the Voting Rights Act of 1965 targeted racial barriers to voting.

Federal legislation and court decisions expanded enforceable rights amid resistance and continuing disparities. These reforms drew on earlier Reconstruction amendments.

Original historical article · Authorities & decisions

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed by Lyndon B. Johnson after sustained organizing and congressional debate. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 addressed discriminatory voting practices; the Supreme Court’s Brown decision of 1954 had rejected school segregation.