9. French Revolution & Napoleonic Wars
1. How events unfolded
France’s fiscal crisis, social inequality and political confrontation overturned the monarchy. Revolutionary governments confiscated church and émigré property and changed landholding. The sale of national lands redistributed assets, but those with capital often had greater access than the poorest households.
2. The costs & gains
War spread revolutionary and then Napoleonic rule across Europe. Armies demanded provisions and payments; art and archives were transported to Paris. Reforms in law and administration sometimes survived occupation, even where foreign domination provoked resistance. The invasion of Russia in 1812 exposed the destructive limits of an army unable to sustain its supply lines.
3. What endured
After Napoleon’s defeat, European governments redrew borders and restored monarchies while retaining some reforms. Neither liberation nor exploitation fully describes the period: legal modernization, military requisition, nationalism and civilian hardship developed together.